1454-1555


 * toc
 * 1454-1555 (The Peace of Augsburg)**

Christopher Columbus: The Controversy

 * ======**Problems with Columbus**======
 * ======**Colombian Exchange**======
 * ======**Prince Henry the** **Navigator**======

[[image:columbus-02072008090454T01.jpg width="240" height="155" align="left"]]
- Christopher Columbus set sail August 2,1492. While Columbus didn't believe that the world was flat, he did believe that he would would convert the world to Christianity. Columbus ended up landing in the Bahamas which he thought was the undeveloped part of Asia. The territory was called the indies and he wrote that the natives were friendly and gentle, so they were easy to enslave.

-He sometime killed and enslaved the Indians he met -He was a Cruel and ineffective leader of the Caribbean colony
 * The problem with Columbus**

Santa fe Capitulations- This named Columbus the official who would run the country he might discover and gave him 1/10 of the rewards


 * The Colombian exchange**-The most significant changes were biosocial

-The migration of people led to an exchange of animals,plants and disease

He led to Portugal's success in the spice trade Other important explorers- Vasco de Gama--Proved the possibility of very profitable trade with the East through the cape route Ferdinand Magellan- Set out to circumnavigate the globe, He also proved that the Area Columbus discovered was not a part of the far east
 * Prince Henry the navigator-**

New world Conquest

 * ======**Encomienda System**======
 * ======**Race**======

Reasons- Because of the slow recovery of gold and the desire to expand hurried up Spains search for wealth Hernando Cortes- A spanish explorer that who entered Tenochtitlan and destroyed the leadership and gained complete control of the city Internal problems made it easier to take over the aztecs.

Sugar and Slavery- The growing slave trade led to an increase in sugar production Silver- The influx of silver led to the influence of spanish armies,Catholicism and wealth to increase. Problem- Because of the inquisition in the fifteenth century, Spain had lost some of its best farmers and merchants, which made the spanish economy suffer.
 * Ecomienda system**- This allowed the conquerors the right to employ amerindians as laborers for agricultural or mining purposes

What influence did the new world conquest have?- Race - Settelers to the new americas brought racial attitudes towards the africans and the institution of slavery would also contribute to more feelings of Racial superiority.

New Monarchs

 * ======**Royal Councils**======
 * ======**Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges**======
 * ======**The Gabelle**======
 * ======**The Star Chamber**======
 * ======**The Tudors**======
 * ======**Justices of the Peace**======
 * ======**Hermandades**======

By applying Renaissance political ideas, rulers of Italy, France, England, and Spain consolidated their power, suppressed the aristocracy and clergy, and created the beginnings of absolutism.

In France, __Charles VII__ used the royal council to give power to the middle class, the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges to reduce the power of the clergy, created a standing army, and established the Gabelle to strengthen royal finances. **Royal Councils** were used by the rulers of France, England and Spain, to take power away from the aristocracy and give it to the middle class, who were the New Monarchs' recent "allies". To establish power over the clergy, Charles VII created the **Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges**, which established the government's power to control the appointment of bishops. The **Gabelle** and the Taille were taxes imposed by Charles VII to strenghten the governement's finances. The Gabelle was a tax on salt, and the Taille a tax on land.

In England, __Henry VII__ also used royal councils, but in addition created the court of the **Star Chamber**, a subsection of the coucil that dealt with aristocratic troublemakers using terror tactics such as torture. Henry VII was a part of the **Tudors**, an English family, which crushed the power of the nobility and gained the support of the middle class. **Justices of the Peace** were wealthy landowners who acted as local officials under the control of the Tudors.

In Spain, __Ferdinand and Isabella__ revived the **hermandades** to act as a local police force in the many loosely-united kingdoms that made up Spain. Like France and England, Spain restructured the royal council to exclude the aristocracy, and give power to the middle class.

Italian Renaissance vs. Northern Renaissance

 * ======**Italian Humanists**======
 * ======**Christian Humanists**======
 * ======**Secularism**======

On the whole, the Italian renaissance was very different from the Northern Renaissance in that while **Italian Humanists** used the ideological developments of the Renaissance to support their core religous beliefs, northern humanists, or **Christian Humanists** instead meshed Italian ideas about humanism with their own christian ideals to form a catalyst for what would later become the Reformation.

As the Renaissance in Italy progressed, art in particular started to move away from religious tones, and became more secular and classical. **Secularism** in Italy was a movement towards a greater focus on the physical rather than spiritual realm. As the Renaissance in Northern Europe progressed, however, religious concerns grew, and plans for reform were set into motion, eventually leading up to the Catholic and Prtoestant Reformation.

Renaissance Literature: Petrarch, Castiglione, Pizan, and Machiavelli
Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374) was a Renaissance poet, scholar, and artist who was one of the earliest humanists. He was known as the **__"Father of Humanism"__ **and was a model for further developments in literature and education. Petrarch is best known for his cultural break from what he referred to as the "Dark Ages," and believed that**** the was witnessing a new age of intellectual achievement. ****
 * ======**Petrarch**======
 * ======**Castiglione**======
 * ======**Pizan**======
 * ======**Machiavelli**======

Bladassare Castiglione was a Renaissance writer as well, best known for his book on how to train, discipline, and fashion young men called **//__The C__//__ourtier__ //__(1528)__**. Unlike pervious thinkers, Castiglione most envied somebody who could perform well in multiple areas of social life including dance, poetry, music, and art. By the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries,**// **// The Courtier was translated into almost every European language and was one of the most influential Renaissance examples regarding social life.

One of the most influential women of the Renaissance was __Christine de Pizan__. Her most famous works include The Book of the City of Ladies and The Book of the //**** //Three Virtues. Pizan embraced humanism by challenging stereotypes about the male-dominated Renaissance atmosphere. // **__The__ **//__Prince, __ written by Niccolo Machiavelli is one of the most read and most influential political books of all time. He concluded that humans are selfish and out to //**** // only advance self-interests. As Machiavelli suggests, a prince should have the cunning of a fox and the strength of a lion, making sure to provide ju // stice, law, and order. Effectiveness, in his opinion, was the test for a good government. Because of Machiavelli's large influence, Machiavellian has become an adjective which means simply that the ends justify the means. **

The Renaissance Zeitgeist

 * ======**Humanism**======
 * ======**Classicism**======
 * ======**Individualism**======
 * ======**Secularism**======

__**Humanism**__ resulted in artists, poets, and writers showing a greater intrest in the ancient past than ever before. Latin, Greek, and other ancient languages were being taught more than ever as a result. Most importantly, humanism emphasized human beings and their interests, achievements, and capabilities. Humanism represented the break from the Dark Ages, using classics to reveal human nature instead of relying on God for answers. This is similar to the idea of __**classicism**__, which was literally the already mentioned revival of the classics. Because of this revival, many authors tried to copy ancient authors and entrepreneurs tried to replicate the Plutonic Academy. All in all, the ideas of humanism and classicism represented a growing emphasis on education, the individual, achievement, and the classics.

The attitude of __**individualism**__ stressed personality, unique genius, and the full development of the capacity of the human mind. To accomplish this, many scholars enrolled into universities which were rising with enormous speed. For example, the Universities of Cambridge and Oxford were both established at this time. Most importantly, scholars were working harder than ever in order to accomplish more than a single person could have done in previous centuries; in turn, this led to advances in literature, medicine, language, and science.

Beginning during the Renaissance was a greater concern for the material world over the spiritual world. This was generally called __**Secularism**__. Secularism resulted because with advances in science, more questions that were originally answered using religion were able to be answered logically. For example, pre-Renaissance a flower was red because God was angry when He created it, but post-Renaissance that same flower was red because of the pigment inside of the petals. This increasing with the here and now resulted in the greater importance of monetary value. A wealthy man could afford to live a more comfortable life than a poor person during this time because previously material possessions meant less in everyday life. All in all, everyday life edged toward a secular feeling but religious attitudes still persisted through texts, arts, and sculptures.

Christian Humanism

 * ======**Thomas More**======
 * ======**Utopia**======
 * ======**Desiderius Erasmus**======
 * ======**The Praise of Folly**======


 * Christian Humanists** developed programs of social reform based on Christian ideals. Further, **Christian Humanists** stressed the use of reason in order to establish a foundation for an ethical way of life. They believed that although human nature was undoubtedly corrupted by sin, people were fundamentally good and capable of improvement and progress. **Thomas More** wrote **//Utopia//** in 1516, which was used to represent the ideal society. **More** believed that everyone should get an education, primarily by looking towards the classics for inspiration, and that the educational patterns should continue into their adulthood. **More** also believed in a world full of social equality and peace, where war can simply be bought off by material wealth, showing that he feels the problems of everyday society are caused by greed. Contrary to most philosophers of during the age of the Renaissance, **More** believed that the key to improvement and reform of the individual was a reform of the social institutions, that ultimately molded the individual.



brought society. Like **More**, **Erasmus** believed that education was the means to reform, as well as the key to moral and intellectual improvement. He, like **More**, believed in learning from the classics, however, he was also a firm believer in studying the bible. Lastly, **Erasmus** was a strong supporter of the Christian faith, promoting the study of Jesus Christ's life to learn how to improve society and reach a higher spiritual and intellectual level.
 * Erasmus** wrote **//The Praise of Folly//** in 1509, which called for the promotion of the Christian faith, rather than the worldly wisdom the Renaissance

Lutheranism

 * ======**Martin Luther**======
 * ======**95 Theses on the Power of Indulgences**======
 * **Priesthood of All Believers**
 * ======**Johann Tetzel**======
 * ======**Diet of Worms**======
 * ======**Charles V**======
 * ======**Protestantism**======
 * ======**German Peasants War of 1525**======
 * ======**Marriage**======

While the Catholic Church was facing widespread criticism, **Martin Luther** formed his own branch of Christianity, which would later be known as **Protestantism**. **Luther** believed that people should read the scriptures for themselves. He believed that people could practice their religion on their own, without a priest, a phenomenon known as the **priesthood of all believers**. Further, **Luther's** ideas of marriage strongly countered those of the Catholic Church. **Luther** believed, and even promoted **marriage**. Further, he was not opposed to divorces, even though they were very uncommon, while the Catholic Church believed that a **marriage** could not be dissolved once entered into.

When the Catholic Church sold indulgences, **Luther** responded decisively, feeling that people felt they did not need to repent for their sins once they brought their indulgences. His response was the **95 Theses** which attacked the Catholic Church, **Tetzel**, and **indulgences** altogether. At this point, the Catholic Church was strongly against **Lutheran** philosophy, so **Charles V** summoned **Luther** to the **Diet of Worms**, where he ordered **Luther** to recant his works, which he refused to do.

Lastly, **Lutheran** ideas were taken up among the peasants, and in their fight for freedom and wealth they **revolted in 1525**. They cited Luther as the person that could justify their actions, but in an effort to prevent rebellion **Luther** ended up siding with the nobility and land lords, losing much of the popular appeal **Luther** had gained among the peasantry. **Luther's** ideas had a profound impact on Calvinist ideology and the Christian faith as a whole.


 * ======**Charles V**======
 * ======**Holy Roman Empire**======
 * ======**Habsburgs**======
 * ======**Martin Luther**======
 * ======**The Diet of Worms**======
 * ======**German Peasants' Revolt of 1525**======
 * ======**Imperial Diet in 1530**======
 * ======**Peace of Augsburg**======

The diverse **Holy Roman Empire**, ruled by the **Habsburgs** and lacking a strong central government, was an ideal area for **Luther**'s **Protestant** ideas to spread.



Peasants, troubles by crop failures and economic turmoil, used Luther's ideas regarding Scripture to back their demands against their lords and rulers, and erupted in the massive **German Peasants' Revolt of 1525.** Luther however, insisted that Scripture did not support opposition to secular authority, and gave his support to lay rulers to quickly end the uprising, losing much of his support from the peasantry in the process.

Luther's Protestantism in the eyes of the majority of lords and nobles, was an opportunity to increase their independence from their Catholic Habsburg Rulers, and many adopted the new faith solely for financial and political benefits. **Charles V**, a supporter of Catholicism, attempted to stop the spread of Protestant ideas by holding the **Imperial Diet in 1530**, where he ordered all Protestants to return to the Catholic Church. However, the Protestant princes refused to submit, and formed a military alliance to combat Charles V. Already engaged in the **Habsburg-Valois Wars** against France, Charles V was unable to subdue them militarily and issued the **Peace of Augsburg**, granting territorial rulers to determine the faith practiced within their boundaries.

**Calvinism**

 * ======**John Calvin**======
 * ======**Predestination**======
 * ======**Geneva**======
 * ======**Presbytarians**======
 * ======**John Knox**======

The year of 1536 saw the introduction of the ideas of **John Calvin** when he published **"The Institutes of the Christian Religion"**, outlining the principles of his views in reforming the Christian faith.



Calvin's ideas rested on the doctrine of **predestination**, a more pessimistic view in which individuals could not actively influence their chances of achieve salvation. Rather, whether one would go to Heaven or not had already been decided by God upon his creation of the world, and no actions performed on Earth could change it. This emphasized the unquestionable power of God while at the same time revealing the insignificance of individual humans.

Predestination and the rest of Calvin's views were established most prominently in the city of **Geneva**, where the residents used their belief that they were one of the "predestined" as a drive to meet any hardships and obstacles that came their way.

Additionally, Calvinism readily spread throughout Scotland where it was established by **John Knox** as the dominant faith of the **Presbyterian Church**, modeled off of Geneva.

**The Radical Reformation**

 * ======**Anabaptists**======

The individuals and groups who rejected the idea that church and state needed to be united were termed "radicals" for their insistence on a more extensive break with the past. Those who adopted the baptism of believers were called "Anabaptists", or rebaptizers by their enemies.

**The Catholic Reformation**

 * ======**The Council of Trent**======
 * ======**Tridentine decrees**======
 * ======**Jesuits**======
 * ======**Society of Jesus**======
 * ======**Baroque**======



The Council of Trent, headed by Pope Paul III, was called not only to reform the church but also to secure reconciliation with the Protestants. The council dealt with both doctrinal and disciplinary matters. It gave equal validity to the Scriptures and to tradition as sources of religious truth and authority. It reaffirmed the seven sacraments and the traditional Catholic reaching on transubstantiation. Thus it rejected Lutheran and Calvinist positions. The council strengthened ecclesiastical discipline, creating Tridentine decrees that required bishops to reside in their own dioceses, suppressing pluralism and simony, and forbidding the sale of indulgences. Also, great emphasis was laid on preaching and instructing the laity, especially the uneducated. This also ended secret marriages in Catholic countries. Reconciliation with Protestantism was not achieved, nor was reform brought about immediately, but the Tridentine decrees laid a solid basis for the spiritual renewal of the church and for the enforcement of correction.

The Society of Jesus, or Jesuits, founded by Ignatius Loyola (1491 - 1556), a former Spanish soldier, played a powerful international role in resisting the spread of Protestantism, converting Asians and Latin American Indians to Catholicism and spreading Christian education all over Europe. In 1540, Loyola secured papal approval of the new Society of Jesus. The Society of Jesus developed into a highly centralized, tightly knit organization, achieving phenomenal success for the papacy and the reformed Catholic Church. Because of their position as confessors and spiritual directors to kings, Jesuits exerted great political influence. Within Europe, the Jesuits brought southern Germany and much of eastern Europe back to Catholicism.



The Baroque Era drew its sense of drama, motion, ceaseless striving, and religious emotionalism from the Catholic Reformation. Taking definite shape in Italy after 1600, the baroque style in the visual arts developed with exceptional vigor in catholic countries - in Spain and Latin America, Austria, southern Germany, and Poland. The baroque style spread partly because its tension and bombast spoke to an agitated age that was experiencing great violence and controversy in politics and religion. Baroque reached maturity in painting with Peter Paul Rubens (1577 - 1640), the most outstanding and most representative of baroque painters, also enjoying the wealth and position that was won in the Renaissance. In music, the baroque style reached its culmination almost a century later in the dynamic, soaring lines of the endlessly inventive Johann Sebastian Bach (1685 - 1750).

English Reformation: Henry VIII

 * **Tudor Dynasty**
 * ======**Protestantism**======
 * ======**Ireland**======

[[image:http://www.wsu.edu/%7Edelahoyd/shakespeare/henryVIII.jpg width="150" height="206" align="right"]]
King Henry VIII was married to Catherine of Argon, daughter of Isabella and Ferdinand, but soon faced political and religious problems when he wished to divorce her and marry a court lady-in-waiting named, Anne Boleyn. With Charles V being Catherine's nephew he could not allow such a thing, and with the seize of Rome by Charles V, King Henry got rid of the English Church from Papal Jurisdiction. The **Act of Restraint of Appeals** and **The Supremacy Act** had the king as the supreme head of the Church of England and the sovereign. Due to the Chief Minister, Thomas Cromwell, Henry VIII dissolved the English monasteries in order to gain its wealth. This strengthened the upper class, which tied them to the Tudor Dynasty.

Little by little King Henry VIII rid of Catholic practices and slowly turned to Protestantism, but in 1536 the **Pilgrimage of Grace** (multi-class rebellion) showed the dislike in these religious changes. Catholicism was strong in Ireland. The Church of Ireland retained this religion strongly and only to infuse a strong political and religious tension between the English and the Irish.

Reformation's Impact on Women

 * ======**Religious Life**======
 * ======**Marriage Life**======

When women married the Reformation brought more equality than they had before. In a protestant household men and women were both spiritually equal and was to show obedience. They were advised to be cheerful. Protestant allowed women to hold religious authority. Nuns lacked a place for religious vocation, but this allowed women to seek and receive education. They were become literate, artists, and received medical or administrative talents. If these women did not commit to the views at the time as either a Protestant or a Catholic, then they would be be assumed that they were witches. By becoming part of society they gained security.