1816-1913


 * ​​​1816-1913 (Onset of WWI)**toc


 * ======**Strum and Drang**======
 * ======**Rousseau**======
 * ======**Nature**======
 * ======**Poetry**======
 * ======**Delacroix**======
 * ======**Beethoven**======

The Romantic Movement influenced much of the culture and arts of the 19th century. This new era was created from a revolt against the order and rationality of the Enlightenment. Although the Enlightenment was virtually the opposite of romanticism, many aspects of romanticism was influenced by Enlightenment thinker, Rousseau, who believed in freedom and natural happiness. Romantics in Germany called themselves the "Strum and Drang", the "storm and stress" of the era. This was true as they lived very emotional lives. In the arts, Romantics expressed themselves through poems devoted to the tiniest details of the simplest subjects. Two major romantic artists include Delacroix and Beethoven.
 * Romanticism**

Nationalism was created from an idea based on cultural unity. Leaders believed that with a nation unified by language and customs, This idea was unique to all other ideologies as it connected people of many different political beliefs. Although it connected many countries, this idea turned lethal, as countries began to feel superior to one another.
 * Nationalism**

Romantic Nationalism Romantic Nationalism, or "bottom-up nationalism", was an idea that people of a different nationality had the right to rise up against their oppressors. An example of this is the liberation of the Greeks against the Turks. The idea that the Greeks could rise up against their leader influenced many countries to support them in victory against the turks.

Continental Industrialism: Economic Nationalism

 * ======**Protective Tariff**======
 * ======**Zollverein**======
 * ======**Belgium, Germany, France**======
 * ======**William Cockerill**======

England's early industrialization had moved them into a more advanced state than the rest of Europe. War on the continent during the time of British industrialization handicapped the possible communication between England and the continent. When the continent did start industrializing, they had some advantages over Britain. First, the continental labor force had already started "producing" enterprise, merchant capitalists, and city artisans. This advantage allowed for easily adopting into the new market conditions. Second, Britain already came up with the new ideas for the industrial revolution. All the continent had to do was understand what Britain was doing and basically copy it into their own countries system. Third, countries like Russia and France could make quick decisions on what to do with their economy since no other country had political control over them.

Some British citizens managed to illegally slip out of their country and give industrialized ideas to continental Europe. **William Cockerill** was one of those people. He began building cotton-spinning equipment in Belgium for continental people to use. To promote economic Nationalism, countries began instituting **Protective Tariffs**. Protective Tariffs were taxes placed on foreign goods to make that item very expensive, while the counties own product would be sold to boost its economy. In Belgium, the state owned the enire railroad system. All profits made from it would go directly to the state and the government. German journalist Friedrich List, a nationalist, supported the idea of a customs union, or a **zollverein**, which allowed for items to move without tariff within a state. The banking system also changed in the time of the revolution. Banks now offerred limited liability which meant that stockholders could only lose the amount they put into stocks, and no more. Also, banks used the money that people gave them, and used it to loan out to companies in order for them to build railroads and other things.

19th Century Demographics: Health, Sa​sanitation, Malthus & Ricardo

 * ======**Working Conditions**======
 * ======**Factory Act of 1833**======
 * ======**Mines Act of 1842**======
 * ======**Louis Pasteur**======
 * ======**Thomas Malthus**======
 * ======**David Ricardo**======
 * ======**Iron Law of Wages**======

The Industrial Revolution brought dramatic change to **Working Conditions**. Before the Industrial Revolution, workers had no limit on work time. They could work 20 hour days with only 1 hour lunch as their break. The Industrial Revolution changed this with a couple of laws. The first was the **Factory Act of 1833**. This limited the factory workday for children between 9 and 13 to 8 hours a day, and adolescents between 14 and 18 to 12 hours a day of work. Child Labor was allowed but it was minimized with this act. Another law was the **Mines act of 1842.** Women and boys under the age of 10 could not work underground in mines anymore. This law was brought about as a measure to improve the health of children. While mining, they would inhale poisonous gases, thus causing them to live shorter lives. With the Factory Act, children would not be exhausted by the end of the day and their brains would be able to function properly. With these betterments in the work force, **David Ricardo** said that a man's wage should be just enough to keep the worker from starving as part of his **Iron Law of Wages**. **Thomas Malthus** added that the population would grow faster than the food supply,so therefore war was necessary to kill off people in order for the food supply to be adequate.

Sanitation was a problem in Europe at this time though. The city would get crowded and up to 10 people would live in 1 room as their shelter. Disease would spread quickly this way and with that people died younger. **Louis Pasteur** discovered that microscopic living objects form on everything, but excessive heat kills them. Each disease corresponds to a specific living organism, and with that vaccines were formed and this let people be immune to a specific disease. Diseases were being controlled more, and thus the living conditions and sanitation improved.

19th Century Society: Working Class Culture

 * ======**Limited class unity**======
 * ======**Highly skilled "Labor Aristocracy"**======
 * ======**Semiskilled**======
 * ======**Unskilled**======
 * ======**Religious decline and attendance**======

Drinking was the favorite leisure activity, but declined as it became less socially acceptable, but became more public and social. Sports and music halls emerged as leisure time passions. Religion and Christian churches continued to provide working people with solace and meaning. Early 19th century was an age of religious revival. However, there was a decline in church attendance in the latter part of the 19th century, and there was a general decline in faith and religious belief. -Churches failed to keep up with the rapid growth of urban population. Church attendance was not considered part of the urban working class culture.
 * Working Class Culture**: 4/5 people belonged to the working classes. Many were still small landowning peasants and hired farm hands, especially in Eastern Europe. In Western Europe, however, the typical worker had left the land and went to work in industrialized areas. The urban working classes were less unified than the middle classes, for there was increased specialization in working class skills. Skilled, semiskilled, and unskilled workers developed widely divergent lifestyles and cultural values, which contributed to a sense of social status and hierarchy within the working class itself. This resulted in varied and limited class unity.

-Highly Skilled: The "labor aristocracy"-15% (ex. construction bosses, factory foremen) (also members of traditional highly skilled handicraft trades that had not been mechanized or placed in factories), state of flux, adopted puritanical values -Semiskilled: Very complex, relatively good wages, skilled artisans -Unskilled: Day laborers, united only by common fate of meager earnings

The Golden Age of the Middle Class

 * The Middle Classes**: There was huge diversity within the urban middle class.

-Loosely united by shared code of expected behavior and morality
Upper middle class: The upper middle class desired to be liked the aristocracy and so purchased elaborate homes and had servants. Wanted to trade titles with aristocrats. Lived lavish lifestyles, similar to those of the aristocracy.

Middle Class Groups: Moderately successful businessmen, merchants, professionals in law and medicine. The middle middle class was solid and quite comfortable, but lacking great wealth. Expansion of industry and tech-->solid middle class professions.

Lower middle class: White collar employees, shop owners. Propertyless and earned no more than better paid skilled or semiskilled workers. They were fiercely committed to the middle class and to the ideal of moving up in society. Wanted to achieve professional standing and middle class status.

Food was the largest item in the household budget, for middle class people liked to eat very well. They consumed meat in abundance and dinner parties was the middle class's favored social occasion. The middle class wife had servants and money at her disposal. Food+money=50% of income.

MC well housed in apartment living; women became more attentive to fashion. MC parents tried to provide their children with advanced education.

The middle classes were loosely united by a shared code of expected behavior and morality. It was based on a great stress on hard work, self discipline, and personal achievement. Traditional Christian morality was reaffirmed by this code and preached continuously by MC people. The middle class person was supposed to know right from wrong and act accordingly, as well as differ from morals of the working class.

19th Century Urbanization: Issues and Responses
Issues: -European cities were congested, dirty, and unhealthy, and the only form of transportation was walking -Infectious diseases spread rapidly -Rapid expansion of overcrowded and unhealthy cities as industry grew -Each town or city was using every piece of land to the fullest extent -Extremely unsanitary and unhealthy conditions, bad sewage system -Total absence of public transportation -Terrible housing

Responses: - Rebuilding of Paris; slum conditions and few open spaces and two public parks-->new system of roads and streets -Better housing, esp. for the MC, and parks were created -Improved sewage, system of aqueducts improved quantity of freshwater -Zoning expropriation laws -Mass Public transportation-Electric streetcars, as well as horses-->helped in struggle for decent housing

19th Century Thinkers: Darwin, Spencer, Freud, Germ Theory & Science

 * ======**Charles Darwin**======
 * ======**Herbert Spencer**======
 * ======**Sigmund Freud**======
 * ======**Louis Pasteur**======
 * ======**Joseph Lister**======


 * Since the ideals and ideas of the Scientific Revolution, there was a development of theories and claims and during the 19th Century, people such as Louis Pasteur, Charles Darwin, and Sigmund Freud led the advancement of new ideas in the 19th century. Charles Darwin with his theories of evolution (new spec and social darwinism, which developed that basically in the real world it was the survival of those who were the fittest, the latter attracting a certain radical named Herbert Spencer . Furthermore, as medicinal advances were made, people such as Louis Pasteur disproved the miasmatic theory which stated that the gaseous fumes of the sick caused the infection of others with his germ theory and his discovery of the correlation between germs and diseases through his method of experimentation, pasteurization. Pasteurization involved the heating of a food in order to destroy harmful microorganisms. Also, with the development of surgical techniques, Joseph Lister , a surgeon with an ounce of common sense, realized that by using antiseptics with surgical operating tools the sterilization greatly increased the chance of success in surgery. Also, Sigmund Freud developed the idea that in each human being that was male there was the Oedipus complex and furthermore that each human being had mental devices called defense mechanisms which keep the mind from being cognizant unconscious emotional needs. In addition, Freud also contributed to the scientific world with his postulations that the brain was composed of the ID, EGO and SUPEREGO which were the unconscious sexual and primitive desires, the mediator of what a person does, and the moral values or what a person should do, respectively. Also a minor thinker was Auguste Comte who utilized the positivist method a.k.a. the scientific method to develop a new discipline of sociology. **

Late 19th Century Intellectualism: Realism in Art and Literature

 * ======**realism/naturalism**======
 * ======**Emile Zola**======
 * ======**Edouard Manet**======
 * ======**N.A. Yaroshenko**======
 * ======**Count Leo Tolstoy**======

environment. Writers such as Emile Zola** depicted working-class life as primeval and animalistic. After defending the artist **Edouard Manet** they soon became close friends, with **Edouard** being a realist painter who often portrayed scenes of every day routine activities. Furthermore, **N.A. Yaroshenko and Count Leo Tolstoy** were prominent realistic artists and authors, respectively, usually delineating in their pieces of art was of "human love, trust and every day family ties [and struggles.]"
 * Emerging within the 1840's and the height of influence extending until the 1890's the pressing new style that influences art and and literature in the late 19th century was realism also known as naturalism in the United States. Realism was the usage of the facts or daily routines or observations of daily life to create books or pieces of art. Previously stigmatized and taboo subjects such as alcoholism, forbidden sex, and realistic books written in crude language. Under realism, there was an absolute truth and human being similar to other objects were merely components of it. Furthermore, good and evil were relative to the beholder whilst human behavior it was determined later on in life by heredity and


 * ======**Cavour**======
 * ======**Garibaldi**======
 * ======**Austro-Prussian War**======
 * ======**Bismarck**======
 * ======**Franco-Prussian War**======

The main figure of Italian unification was **Cavour**, who was the prime minister of Pierda-Sardinia. His goal was to unify northern and central Italy. With the help of France, Italy and France were able to defeat Austria. Another great figure of Italian unification was **Garibaldi**. Garibaldi led an expedition to overthrow the government and presented Southern Italy and Sicily to Sardinia, Cavour had succeeded. The Italian unification ten years earlier had an impact on Germany. After Germany won the **Austro-Prussian War**, a northern German state was established. **Bismarck** wanted to make peace with the middle class and also the nationalists. Bismarck sparked a war with France which gained him support from the Southern German States. The **Franco-Prussian War** ended again with a Prussian vicotry and the southern german states joining the northern german states in one strong and powerful German Empire.


 * ======**Bismarck**======
 * ======**Kulturekampf**======
 * ======**Social Security Laws**======


 * Bismarck** waged a **Kulturekampf** or culture struggle. The goal of this was to wage a culture struggle against Catholics. Bismarkc later enacted high tariffs on cheap grain from countries across Europe and the United States. The one main thing Bismarck did to help the people of Germany was he passed **social security laws** . These laws enabled old-age pensions, created national health for all people, and gave people the right to accidental insurance. In the end, Bismarck was able to create new reforms that greatly helped strengthen the conditions of the people in Germany.

Causes of WWI
Bismarck was able to keep peace when it seemed war was inevitable by creating alliances such as the Three emperors League. But once William II became the ruler of Germany, he dissmissed Bismarck and refused to renew the alliance with Russia creating a friendship between Russia and France. With the triple alliance of Austria, Germany, and Italy, the alliance between Russia and France created tension and division in continental Europe. Britain 's foreign policies became important but because of the tension between Germany and England due to commercial rivalry and thanks to the Moroccan Crisis; Britain was most likely to join Russia and France in case of war. The outbreaks of war first began with the first balkan war where Serbia, Greece, and Bulgaria attacked the Ottoman Empire. The second Balkan war was the quarreling of those conquered land where Austria intervened and forced Serbia to give up Albania. The Third Balkan War was one of the main causes of WWI where Archduke Ferdinand, the heir to the Austrian and Hungarian throne was assassinated by Serbian revolutionaries. Austria Hungary declared war on Serbia. This caused Russia and France to help Serbia and Germany to alliance with Austria Hungary. The decision of Germany and their plan to invade France through Belgium caused Great Britain to join France and Russia forming the triple entente.This was the final event that triggered WWI to begin.
 * **Bismarck**
 * **William II**
 * **Three emperors League**
 * **Rising tension between Germany and England**
 * **Moroccan Crisis**
 * **The Balkan wars**

Imperialism in Africa and Asia
New imperialism began where countries started building empires on non Western territories. One of the primarily countries that were focused on was Africa. Britain was one of the countries that was most involved in the Africa and had problems with Afrikaners who tried to defend Africa. Africa became completely divided up and controlled by Europeans. While in the berlin conference, Germany declared no interest in colonies but then turned and began seizing colonies as well. Russia and U.S. were concentrating on Asia while other countries were focused on Africa. Both acquired rich territories in Asia. The causes of New imperialism are mainly for help in industry and economics, national security, military power, and international prestige. Many believed colonies were essential to great countries. Although taking over countries seemed bad, europeans justified their actions with the excuse of helping the less advanced become industrialized and educated which was thought of as the White man's burden. Imperialism had consequences as well and eventually, anti imperialist struggle will form along with national independence and modernization.
 * **new imperialism**
 * **afrikaners**
 * **Berlin conference**
 * **White man's burden**